Grain Refining Elements Used in Steel

I did bit research and found in depth information about titanium grain refining. unfortunately it is inferior to aluminum grain refining in terms of charpy impact strength due to some metallurgical factors.

Now my question is narrowed to following,

What are all the elements other than Aluminum (Aluminium) and Titanium used for grain refinement of steel?

Cheers!

The Ti/N ratio which is established to pin down the grain is necessary in some grades.

Thanks for the info. Extensive digging lead me to read "Titanium addition in HSLA by Peter H Wright, Chapparal Steel Company)"

I found vanadium and niobium also used as grain refiner.I think the mechanism in TMCP by niobium is bit different from aluminum and titanium.

What about heat treatment?

What?heat treatment? it is a very hoooooge subject. digging going on

Till then, as a starter before heavy meal, following link would be useful.

http://www.nationalboard.org/index.aspx?pageID=164&ID=177

Please visit this web site for more elements:-

http://www.nanocon.eu/files/proceedings/nanocon_11/lists/papers/1245.pdf

Thanks for the link. I was not aware of ECAP on B.C.C. materials. I think this process does not have any elemental effect on ultrafine grain structure. It is purely cold deformation and subsequent recrystallization.

Following links would provide an in-depth insight on this process.

https://tinyurl.com/krpe3cn

https://www.jim.or.jp/journal/e/pdf3/50/07/1613.pdf